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Spanish (Spanish: español or castellano) is a Romanish tung spoken as a first tung by 329 (or up to 400) twisand folk worldwide, and further spoken by about 100 twisand as a learned tung. It thus ranks as the 2th tung with the most first speakers, and the 3rd most spoken overall, only after Chinish and English. Spanish is foremost spoken in Spany and Leeden Americksland, with the greatest share of speakers living in Mexico. The Banded Folkdoms of Americksland and other non Spanish-speaking lands worldwide have seen a steep rise of Spanish-speaking folk, mostly as an outcome of inwandering.

Spanish is a daughter tung of Leeden, its nearest kin are the other West Iberish Romlandish tungs, such as Asturish, Galicish, Jewish Spanish, Leonish, and Portugish. Its alikeness in wordstock is 89% with Portugish, 82% with Italish, 75% with French, and 71% with Rumanish.

Spanish is a part of the Ibero-Roomanish group of tungs, which evolved from several dialects of Folkleeden in Iberia after the collapse of Western Roomany in the 5th yearhundred. The oldest Leeden texts with traces of Spanish come from mid-northern Iberia in the 9th yearhundred,[9] and the first systematic written use of the language happened in Toledo, a prominent city of the Kingdom of Castile, in the 13th yearhundred. Beginning in 1492, the Spanish language was taken to the viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire, most notably to the Americas, as well as territories in Africa, Oceania and the Philippines.[10]

A 1949 study by Italian-American linguist Mario Pei, analyzing the degree of difference from a language's parent (Leeden, when it comes to the Roomanish tungs) by comparing phonology, abying, syntax, vocabulary, and intonation, indicated the following percentages (the higher the percentage, the greater the distance from Leeden): When it comes to Spanish, it is one of the closest Roomanish tungs to Leeden (20% distance), only behind Sardinian (8% distance) and Italian (12% distance).[11] Around 75% of modern Spanish vocabulary is derived from Leeden, including Leeden borrowings from Ancient Greek. Spanish vocabulary has been in contact with Arabic from an early date, having developed during the Al-Andalus era in the Iberian Peninsula. With around 8% of its vocabulary being Arabic in origin, this language makes up the next greatest vocabulary source after Leeden itself. It has also been influenced by Basque, Iberian, Celtiberian, Visigothic, and by neighboring Ibero-Roomanish tungs. Additionally, it has absorbed vocabulary from other tungs, particularly other Roomanish tungs—French, Italian, Andalusi Roomanish, Portingalish, Galician, Catalan, Occitan, and Sardinian—as well as from Quechua, Nahuatl, and other indigenous tungs of the Americas.[21]

Spanish is one of the six official tungs of the United Nations. It is also used as an official language by the European Union, the Organization of American States, the Union of South American Nations, the Community of Leeden American and Caribbean States, the African Union and many other international organizations.[22]

Despite its large number of speakers, the Spanish language does not feature prominently in scientific writing, with the exception of the humanities.[23] 75% of scientific production in Spanish is divided into three thematic areas: social sciences, medical sciences and arts/humanities. Spanish is the third most used language on the internet after English and Chinese.[24]

Estimated number of speakers[]

It is estimated that there are more than 437 thousand-thousand people who speak Spanish as a native language, which qualifies it as twoth on the lists of tungs by number of native speakers.[25] Instituto Cervantes claims that there are an estimated 477 thousand-thousand Spanish speakers with native competence and 572 thousand-thousand Spanish speakers as a first or other language—including speakers with limited competence—and more than 21 thousand-thousand students of Spanish as a foreign language.[26]

Spanish is the official or national language in Spany, Equatorial Guinea, and 19 countries in the Americas. Speakers in the Americas total some 418 thousand-thousand. It is also an optional language in the Philippines as it was a Spanish colony from 1569 to 1899. In the European Union, Spanish is the mother tongue of 8% of the population, with an additional 7% speaking it as an other language.[27] Spanish is the most popular other language learned in the Oned Riches.[28] In 2011 it was estimated by the American Community Survey that of the 55 thousand-thousand Hispanic Oned Riches residents who are five years of age and over, 38 thousand-thousand speak Spanish at home.[29]

According to a 2011 paper by U.S. Census Bureau Demographers Jennifer Ortman and Hyon B. Shin,[30] the number of Spanish speakers is projected to rise through 2020 to anywhere between 39 thousand-thousand and 43 thousand-thousand, depending on the assumptions one makes about immigration. Most of these Spanish speakers will be Hispanic, with Ortman and Shin projecting between 37.5 thousand-thousand and 41 thousand-thousand Hispanic Spanish speakers by 2020.

Names of the language and etymology[]

Map indicating places where the language is called castellano or español

Names of the language[]

In Spany and in some other parts of the Spanish-speaking world, Spanish is called not only español (Spanish) but also castellano (Castilian), the language from the kingdom of Castile, contrasting it with other tungs spoken in Spany such as Galician, Basque, Asturian, Catalan, Aragonese and Occitan.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978 uses the term castellano to define the official language of the whole Spanish State in contrast to las demás lenguas españolas (lit. "the other Spanish tungs"). Article III reads as follows:

The Spanish Royal Academy, on the other hand, currently uses the term español in its publications, but from 1713 to 1923 called the language castellano.

The Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (a language guide published by the Spanish Royal Academy) states that, although the Spanish Royal Academy prefers to use the term español in its publications when referring to the Spanish language, both terms—español and castellano—are regarded as synonymous and equally valid.

Etymology[]

The term castellano (Castillian), comes from the Leeden word castellanus, which means "from Castilla", the medieval kingdom located in the central part of the Iberian Peninsula, where this language originated.

Different etymologies have been suggested for the term español (Spanish). According to the Royal Spanish Academy, "español" (Spanish) derives from the Provençal word espaignol and that, in turn, derives from the Medieval Leeden word Hispaniolus, which means "from —or pertaining to— Hispania". The Leeden form HĬSPĀNĬOLUS comes from the Leeden name of the province of HĬSPĀNĬA that included the current territory of the Iberian Peninsula. In late Leeden, the /H/ was silent and /Ĭ/ evolved into a brief /e/ resulting in the word ESPAŇOL(U).

There are other hypotheses apart from the one suggested by the Royal Spanish Academy. Some philologists argue that "español" comes from Occitan Espaignon. On the other hand, Spanish philologist Menéndez Pidal suggested that the classic hispanus or hispanicus took the suffix -one from Folkleeden, as it happened with other words such as bretón (Breton) or sajón (Saxon). The term hispanione evolved into the Old Spanish españón, which eventually, became español.

History[]

The Visigothic Cartularies of Valpuesta, written in a late form of Leeden, were declared in 2010 by the Spanish Royal Academy as the record of the earliest words written in Castilian, predating those of the Glosas Emilianenses.[32]

The Spanish language evolved from Folkleeden, which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans during the Other Punic War, beginning in 210 BC. Previously, several fore-Roomanish tungs (also called Paleohispanic tungs)—some related to Leeden via Indo-European, and some that are not related at all—were spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. These tungs included Basque (still spoken today), Iberian, Celtiberian and Gallaecian.

The first documents to show traces of what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th yearhundred. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era, the most important influences on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring Roomanish tungs—Mozarabic (Andalusi Roomanish), Navarro-Aragonese, Leonese, Catalan, Portingalish, Galician, Occitan, and later, French and Italian. Spanish also borrowed a considerable number of words from Arabic, as well as a minor influence from the Germanic Gothic language through the migration of tribes and a period of Visigoth rule in Iberia. In addition, many more words were borrowed from Leeden through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. The loanwords were taken from both Classical Leeden and Renaissance Leeden, the form of Leeden in use at that time.

According to the theories of Ramón Menéndez Pidal, local sociolects of Folkleeden evolved into Spanish, in the north of Iberia, in an area centered in the city of Burgos, and this dialect was later brought to the city of Toledo, where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th yearhundred.[33] In this formative stage, Spanish developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, Leonese, and, according to some authors, was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see Iberian Roomanish tungs). This distinctive dialect spread to southern Spany with the advance of the Reconquista, and meanwhile gathered a sizable lexical influence from the Arabic of Al-Andalus, much of it indirectly, through the Roomanish Mozarabic dialects (some 4,000 Arabic-derived words, make up around 8% of the language today). The written standard for this new language was developed in the cities of Toledo, in the 13th to 16th centuries, and Madrid, from the 1570s.

The development of the Spanish sound system from that of Folkleeden exhibits most of the changes that are typical of Western Roomanish tungs, including lenition of intervocalic samedsweyends (thus Leeden vīta > Spanish vida). The diphthongization of Leeden stressed short e and o—which occurred in open staffays in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portingalish—is found in both open and closed staffays in Spanish, as shown in the following board:

Leeden Spanish Ladino Aragonese Asturian Galician Portingalish Catalan Gascon / Occitan French Sardinian Italian Romanian English
petra piedra pedra pedrapèira pierre pedraperda pietra piatrǎ 'stone'
terra tierra terra tèrra terre terra țară 'land'
moritur muere muerre morre mor morís meurt mòrit muore moare 'dies (v.)'
mortem muerte morte mort mòrt mort morte, morti morte moarte 'death'

Chronological map showing linguistic evolution in southwest Europe

Spanish is marked by the palatalization of the Leeden double samedsweyends nn and ll (thus Leeden annum > Spanish año, and Leeden anellum > Spanish anillo).

The samedsweyend written u or v in Leeden and pronounced [w] in Classical Leeden had probably "fortified" to a twolippy fricative /β/ in Folkleeden. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portingalish) it merged with the samedsweyend written b (a twolip with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is no difference between the pronunciation of orthographic b and v, with some exceptions in Caribbean Spanish.

Peculiar to Spanish (as well as to the neighboring Gascon dialect of Occitan, and attributed to a Basque substratum) was the mutation of Leeden initial f into h- whenever it was followed by a clepend that did not diphthongize. The h-, still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects it is still aspirated in some words. Because of borrowings from Leeden and from neighboring Roomanish tungs, there are many f-/h-doublets in modern Spanish: Fernando and Hernando (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ferrero and herrero (both Spanish for "smith"), fierro and hierro (both Spanish for "iron"), and fondo and hondo (both Spanish for "deep", but fondo means "bottom" while hondo means "deep"); hacer (Spanish for "to make") is cognate to the root word of satisfacer (Spanish for "to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is similarly cognate to the root word of satisfecho (Spanish for "satisfied").

Compare the examples in the following board:

Leeden Spanish Ladino Aragonese Asturian Galician Portingalish Catalan Gascon / Occitan French Sardinian Italian Romanian English
filium hijo fijo (or hijo) fillo fíu fillo filho fill filhhilh fils fillu figlio fiu 'son'
facere hacer fazer fer facer fazer fer farfairehar (or hèr) faire fairi fare a face 'to do'
febrem fiebre febre fèbrefrèbehrèbe (or

herèbe)

fièvre (calentura) febbre febră 'fever'
focum fuego fueu fogo foc fuòcfòchuèc feu fogu fuoco foc 'fire'

Some samedsweyend clusters of Leeden also produced characteristically different results in these tungs, as shown in the examples in the following board:

Leeden Spanish Ladino Aragonese Asturian Galician Portingalish Catalan Gascon / Occitan French Sardinian Italian Romanian English
clāvem llaveclave clave clau llave chave chave clau clé crai chiave cheie 'key'
flamma llamaflama flama chama chamaflama flama flamme framma fiamma flamă 'flame'
plēnum llenopleno pleno plen llenu cheo cheiopleno ple plen plein prenu pieno plin 'plenty, full'
octō ocho güeito ochooito oito oito (oito) vuithuit chchuèit huit otu otto opt 'eight'
multum mucho

muy

muncho

muy

muito

mui

munchu

mui

moito

moi

muito (muito)

mui (arch.)

molt molt (arch.) moult (arch.) (meda) molto mult 'much,

very,
many'

Antonio de Nebrija, author of Gramática de la lengua castellana, the first grammar of modern European tungs. In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent a dramatic change in the pronunciation of its hissing samedsweyends, known in Spanish as the reajuste de las sibilantes, which resulted in the distinctive velar [x] pronunciation of the bookstaff ⟨j⟩ and—in a large part of Spany—the characteristic interdental [θ] ("th-sound") for the bookstaff ⟨z⟩ (and for ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩). See History of Spanish (Modern development of the Old Spanish hisses) for details.

The Gramática de la lengua castellana, written in Salamanca in 1492 by Elio Antonio de Nebrija, was the first grammar written for a modern European language.[36] According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to Queen Isabella I, she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire.[37] In his introduction to the grammar, dated 18 August 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."[38]

From the sixteenth yearhundred onwards, the language was taken to the Spanish-discovered America and the Spanish East Indies via Spanish colonization of America. Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, author of Don Quixote, is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called la lengua de Cervantes ("the language of Cervantes").[39]

In the twentieth yearhundred, Spanish was introduced to Equatorial Guinea and the Western Sahara, and to areas of the Oned Riches that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as Spanish Harlem in New York City. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see Influences on the Spanish language.

Grammar[]

Miguel de Cervantes, considered by many the greatest author of Spanish literature, and author of Don Quixote, widely considered the first modern European novel.

Most of the grammatical and typological features of Spanish are shared with the other Roomanish tungs. Spanish is a fusional language. The name and ekend systems exhibit two kins and two atells, in addition articles and some bynames and binders have a neither kin in the onefold atell. There are about fifty conjugated forms per tideword, with 3 tenses: forthwitten, anward, toward; 2 aspects for the forthwitten tide: fulfremmingly, unfulfremmingly; 4 moods: beckoningly, undertheedingly, conditional, biddingly; 3 hoads: first, other, third; 2 atells: onefold and manifold; 3 verboid forms: unendingly, gerund, and the forthwitten dealnimmer. Tidewords express T-V distinction by using different hoads for formal and informal addresses. (For a detailed overview of tidewords, see Spanish tidewords and Spanish irregular tidewords.)

Spanish syntax is considered right-branching, meaning that subordinate or modifying constituents tend to be placed after their head words. The language uses foresettings (rather than postpositions or abying of names for fall), and usually—though not always—places ekends after names, as do most other Roomanish tungs.

The language is classified as a subject–tideword–object language; however, as in most Roomanish tungs, constituent order is highly variable and governed mainly by topicalization and focus rather than by syntax. It is a "pro-drop", or "null-subject" language—that is, it allows the deletion of subject bynames when they are pragmatically unnecessary. Spanish is described as a "tideword-framed" language, meaning that the direction of motion is expressed in the tideword while the mode of locomotion is expressed adverbially (e.g. subir corriendo or salir volando; the respective English equivalents of these examples—'to run up' and 'to fly out'—show that English is, by contrast, "satellite-framed", with mode of locomotion expressed in the tideword and direction in an adverbial modifier).

Subject/tideword inversion is not required in questions, and thus the recognition of declarative or askingly may depend entirely on intonation.

Phonology[]

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Spanish spoken in Spany

The Spanish phonemic system is originally descended from that of Folkleeden. Its development exhibits some traits in common with the neighboring dialects—especially Leonese and Aragonese—as well as other traits unique to Castilian. Castilian is unique among its neighbors in the aspiration and eventual loss of the Leeden initial /f/ sound (e.g. Cast. harina vs. Leon. and Arag. farina).[40] The Leeden initial samedsweyend sequences pl-cl-, and fl- in Spanish typically become ll- (originally pronounced [ʎ]), while in Aragonese they are preserved, and in Leonese they present a variety of outcomes, including [tʃ], [ʃ], and [ʎ]. Where Leeden had -li- before a clepend (e.g. filius) or the ending -iculus-icula (e.g. auricula), Old Spanish produced [ʒ], that in Modern Spanish became the velar fricative [x] (hijooreja, where neighboring tungs have the mouthroofy lateral [ʎ] (e.g. Portingalish filhoorelha; Catalan fillorella).

Segmental phonology[]

Spanish clepend chart, from Ladefoged & Johnson (2010:227)

The Spanish phonemic inventory consists of five clepend phonemes (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/) and 17 to 19 samedsweyend phonemes (the exact number depending on the dialect). The main allophonic variation among clepends is the reduction of the high clepends /i/ and /u/ to glides—[j] and [w] respectively—when unstressed and adjacent to another clepend. Some instances of the mid clepends /e/ and /o/, determined lexically, alternate with the diphthongs /je/ and /we/ respectively when stressed, in a process that is better described as morphophonemic rather than phonological, as it is not predictable from phonology alone.

The Spanish samedsweyend system is characterized by (1) three nosely phonemes, and one or two (depending on the dialect) lateral phoneme(s), which in staffay-final position lose their contrast and are subject to assimilation to a following samedsweyend; (2) three unrearded stops and the affricate /tʃ/; (3) three or four (depending on the dialect) unrearded fricatives; (4) a set of rearded obstruents—/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, and sometimes /ʝ/—which alternate between approximant and plosive allophones depending on the environment; and (5) a phonemic distinction between the "tapped" and "trilled" r-sounds (single ⟨r⟩ and double ⟨rr⟩ in orthography).

In the following board of samedsweyend phonemes, /ʎ/ is marked with an asterisk (*) to indicate that it is preserved only in some dialects. In most dialects it has been merged with /ʝ/ in the merger called yeísmo. Similarly, /θ/ is also marked with an asterisk to indicate that most dialects do not distinguish it from /s/ (see seseo), although this is not a true merger but an outcome of different evolution of hisses in Southern Spany.

The phoneme /ʃ/ is in parentheses () to indicate that it appears only in loanwords. Each of the rearded obstruent phonemes /b/, /d/, /ʝ/, and /ɡ/ appears to the right of a pair of unrearded phonemes, to indicate that, while the unrearded phonemes maintain a phonemic contrast between plosive (or affricate) and fricative, the rearded ones alternate allophonically (i.e. without phonemic contrast) between plosive and approximant pronunciations.

Samedsweyend phonemes
Lippy Toothly Alveolar Mouthroofy Velar
Nose m n ɲ
Stop p b t d ʝ k ɡ
Continuant f θ* s (ʃ) x
Lateral l ʎ*
Flap ɾ
Trill r

Prosody[]

Spanish is classified by its rhythm as a staffay-timed language: each staffay has approximately the same duration regardless of stress.[43][44]

Spanish intonation varies significantly according to dialect but generally conforms to a pattern of falling tone for declarative sentences and wh-questions (who, what, why, etc.) and rising tone for yes/no questions.[45][46] There are no syntactic markers to distinguish between questions and statements and thus, the recognition of declarative or askingly depends entirely on intonation.

Stress most often occurs on any of the last three staffays of a word, with some rare exceptions at the fourth-last or earlier staffays. The tendencies of stress assignment are as follows:[47]

  • In words that end with a clepend, stress most often falls on the penultimate staffay.
  • In words that end with a samedsweyend, stress most often falls on the last staffay, with the following exceptions: The grammatical endings -n (for third-hoad-manifold shape of tidewords) and -s (whether for the manifold shape of names and ekends or for the other-hoad-onefold shape of tidewords) do not change the location of stress. Thus, regular tidewords ending with -n and the great majority of words ending with -s are stressed on the penult. Although a significant number of names and ekends ending with -n are also stressed on the penult (jovenvirgenmitin), the great majority of names and ekends ending with -n are stressed on their last staffay (capitánalmacénjardíncorazón).
  • Preantepenultimate stress (stress on the fourth-to-last staffay) occurs rarely, only on tidewords with clitic bynames attached (guardándoselos 'saving them for him/her/them/you').

In addition to the many exceptions to these tendencies, there are numerous minimal pairs that contrast solely on stress such as sábana ('sheet') and sabana ('savannah'); límite ('boundary'), limite ('[that] he/she limits') and limité ('I limited'); líquido ('liquid'), liquido ('I sell off') and liquidó ('he/she sold off').

The orthographic system unambiguously reflects where the stress occurs: in the absence of an accent mark, the stress falls on the last staffay unless the last bookstaff is ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, or a clepend, in which falls the stress falls on the next-to-last (penultimate) staffay. Exceptions to those rules are indicated by an acute accent mark over the clepend of the stressed staffay.

Geographical distribution[]

See also: Hispanophone

Geographical distribution of the Spanish language

Official or co-official language

1,000,000+

100,000+

20,000+

Active learning of Spanish.[48]

Spanish is the primary language of 20 countries worldwide. It is estimated that the combined total number of Spanish speakers is between 470 and 500 thousand-thousand, making it the other most widely spoken language in terms of native speakers.[49][50]

Spanish is the third most spoken language by total number of speakers (after Mandarin and English). Internet usage statistics for 2007 also show Spanish as the third most commonly used language on the Internet, after English and Mandarin.[51]

Europe[]

Percentage of people who self reportedly know enough Spanish to hold a conversation, in the EU, 2005

Native country

More than 8.99%

Between 4% and 8.99%

Between 1% and 3.99%

Less than 1%

In Europe, Spanish is an official language of Spany, the country after which it is named and from which it originated. It is widely spoken in Gibraltar, and also commonly spoken in Andorra, although Catalan is the official language there.[52]

Spanish is also spoken by small communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Germany.[53] Spanish is an official language of the European Union. In Switzerland, which had a massive influx of Spanish migrants in the 20th yearhundred, Spanish is the native language of 2.2% of the population.[54]

Americas[]

Hispanic America[]

Most Spanish speakers are in Hispanic America; of all countries with a majority of Spanish speakers, only Spany and Equatorial Guinea are outside the Americas. Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure—of Argentina, Bolivia (co-official with Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and 34 other tungs), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico (co-official with 63 indigenous tungs), Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní),[55] Peru (co-official with Quechua, Aymara, and "the other indigenous tungs"[56]), Puerto Rico (co-official with English),[57] Uruguay, and Venezuela. Spanish has no official recognition in the former British colony of Belize; however, per the 2000 census, it is spoken by 43% of the population.[58][59] Mainly, it is spoken by the descendants of Hispanics who have been in the region since the seventeenth yearhundred; however, English is the official language.[60]

Due to their proximity to Spanish-speaking countries, Trinidad and Tobago and Brazil have implemented Spanish language teaching into their education systems. The Trinidad government launched the Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005.[61] In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President, making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.[62] In September 2016 this law was revoked by Michel Temer after impeachment of Dilma Rousseff.[63] In many border towns and villages along Paraguay and Uruguay, a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken.[64]

Oned Riches[]

See also: New Mexican Spanish

Spanish spoken in the Oned Riches and Puerto Rico. Darker shades of green indicate higher percentages of Spanish speakers.

According to 2006 census data, 44.3 thousand-thousand people of the U.S. population were Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin;[65] 38.3 thousand-thousand people, 13 percent of the population over five years old speak Spanish at home.[66] The Spanish language has a long history of presence in the Oned Riches due to early Spanish and, later, Mexican administration over territories now forming the southwestern states, also Louisiana ruled by Spany from 1762 to 1802, as well as Florida, which was Spanish territory until 1821.

Spanish is by far the most common other language in the US, with over 50 thousand-thousand total speakers if non-native or other-language speakers are included.[67] While English is the de facto national language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico.[68] The language also has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles, Miami, San Antonio, New York, San Francisco, Dallas, and Phoenix; as well as more recently, Chicago, Las Vegas, Boston, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Salt Lake City, Atlanta, Nashville, Orlando, Tampa, Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th- and 21st-yearhundred immigration.

Africa[]

Donato Ndongo-Bidyogo, writer, poet, journalist and promoter of the Spanish language.

Bilingual signage of Museum of the Sahrawi People's Liberation Army in Western Sahara written in Spanish and Arabic.

In Africa, Spanish is official (along with Portingalish and French) in Equatorial Guinea, as well as an official language of the African Union. In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of native speakers.[69][70]

Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spany in North Africa, which include the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the Plazas de soberanía, and the Canary Islands archipelago (population 2,000,000), located some 100 km (62 mi) off the northwest coast of mainland Africa. In northern Morocco, a former Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spany, approximately 20,000 people speak Spanish as an other language, while Arabic is the de jure official language. A small number of Moroccan Youdishmen also speak the Sephardic Spanish dialect Haketia (related to the Ladino dialect spoken in Israel). Spanish is spoken by some small communities in Angola because of the Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned in time for their country's independence.[71]

In Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, Spanish was officially spoken during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Today, Spanish in this disputed territory is maintained by populations of Sahrawi nomads numbering about 500,000 people, and is de facto official alongside Arabic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, although this entity receives limited international recognition.[72][73]

Asia[]

See also: Spanish language in the Philippines

La Solidaridad newspaper and Juan Luna (a Filipino Ilustrado).

Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish administration in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization (1565–1898), it was the language of government, trade and education, and spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos. In the mid-nineteenth yearhundred, the colonial government set up a free public education system with Spanish as the medium of instruction. This increased use of Spanish throughout the islands led to the formation of a class of Spanish-speaking intellectuals called the Ilustrados. By the time of Philippine independence in 1898, around 70% of the population had knowledge of Spanish, with 10% speaking it as their first and only language and about 60% of the population spoke it as their other or third language.[74]

Despite American administration after the defeat of Spany in the Spanish–American War in 1898, the usage of Spanish continued in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American administration. Gradually, however, the American government began increasingly promoting the use of English, and it characterized Spanish as a negative influence of the past. Eventually, by the 1920s, English became the primary language of administration and education.[75] But despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines when it became independent in 1946, alongside English and Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog.

Early flag of the Filipino revolutionaries ("Long live the Philippine Republic!"). The first two constitutions were written in Spanish.

Spanish was removed from official status in 1973 under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, but regained its status as an official language two months later under Presidential Decree No. 155, dated 15 March 1973.[76] It remained an official language until 1987, with the ratification of the present constitution, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.[77] In 2010, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo encouraged the reintroduction of Spanish-language teaching in the Philippine education system.[78] But by 2012, the number of secondary schools at which the language was either a compulsory subject or an elective had become very limited.[79] Today, despite government promotions of Spanish, less than 0.5% of the population report being able to speak the language proficiently.[80] Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language—Chavacano—developed in the southern Philippines. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 thousand-thousand in 1996. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.[81] Speakers of the Zamboangueño variety of Chavacano were numbered about 360,000 in the 2000 census.[82] The local tungs of the Philippines also retain some Spanish influence, with many words being derived from Mexican Spanish, owing to the administration of the islands by Spany through New Spany until 1821, and then directly from Madrid until 1898.[83][84]

Oceania[]

Spanish is also the official language and the most spoken on Easter Island which is geographically part of Polynesia in Oceania and politically part of Chile. Easter Island's traditional language is Rapa Nui, an Eastern Polynesian language.

Announcement in Spanish on Easter Island, welcoming visitors to Rapa Nui National Park

Spanish loan words are present in the local tungs of Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Marshall Islands and Micronesia, all of which formerly comprised the Spanish East Indies.

Spanish speakers by country[]

The following board shows the number of Spanish speakers in some 79 countries.

Country Population Spanish as a native language speakers Native speakers or very good speakers as an other language Total number of Spanish speakers (including limited competence speakers) Mexico 124,737,789 115,631,930 (92.7%) 122,866,722 (98.5%)[91]
Oned Riches 325,719,178 41,017,620 (13.4%) 42,926,496 (82% of the 57.4 mill. Hispanics + 2.8 mill. non Hispanics) 58,008,778 (40,5 thousand-thousand as a first language, 15 thousand-thousand as an other language, 7.8 thousand-thousand students and some of the 9 thousand-thousand undocumented Hispanics not accounted by the Census)
Spany 46,698,569 43,009,382 (92,1%) 46,138,186 (98.8%)
Colombia 45,500,000 44,999,500 (98,9%) 45,136,000 (99,2%)
Argentina 44,494,502 42,062,795 (95.5%) 43,780,542 (99.4%)
Venezuela 31,828,110 30,729,866 (1,098,244 with other mother tongue) 31,466,173 (98.8%)
Peru 32,162,184 27,048,397 (84.1%) 28,945,966 (86.6%)
Chile 18,275,530 17,993,930 (281,600 with other mother tongue) 18,147,601 (99.3%)
Ecuador 16,674,000 14,700,000 16,357,194 (98.1%)
Guatemala 16,945,000 10,167,000 (60%) 14,640,480 (86.4%)
Cuba 11,559,000 11,559,000 11,489,646 (99.4%)
Dominican Republic 10,819,000 9,300,000 10,775,724 (99.6%)
Bolivia 11,145,770 6,464,547 (58%) 9,797,132 (87.9%)
Honduras 8,866,351 8,658,501 (207,750 with other mother tongue)[129] 8,777,687 (99.0%)[91]
Paraguay 6,953,646 4,721,526 (67.9%) 6,953,646 (2,232,120 limited proficiency)
France 65,635,000 477,564 (1% of 47,756,439) 1,910,258 (4% of 47,756,439) 6,685,901 (14% of 47,756,439)
El Salvador 6,349,939 6,330,889 (99.7%) 6,349,939 (19,050 limited proficiency)
Nicaragua 6,218,321 6,037,990 (97.1%) (490,124 with other mother tongue) 6,218,321 (180,331 limited proficiency)
Brazil 206,120,000[139] 460,018[130] 460,018[130] 6,056,018 (460,018 native speakers + 96,000 limited proficiency + 5,500,000 can hold a conversation)
Italy 60,795,612 255,459[141] 1,037,248 (2% of 51,862,391) 5,704,863 (11% of 51,862,391)
Costa Rica 4,890,379 4,806,069 (84,310 with other mother tongue)[143] 4,851,256 (99.2%)[91]
Panama 3,764,166[144] 3,263,123 (501,043 with other mother tongue)[145] 3,504,439 (93.1%)[91]
Uruguay 3,480,222 3,330,022 (150,200 with other mother tongue)[147] 3,441,940 (98.9%)[91]
Puerto Rico 3,474,182 3,303,947 (95.1%)[149] 3,432,492 (98.8%)[91]
Morocco 34,378,000 6,586 6,586 3,415,000[151][152] (10%)[153]
United Kingdom 64,105,700 120,000[155] 518,480 (1%[135] of 51,848,010[134]) 3,110,880 (6%[136] of 51,848,010[134])
Philippines 101,562,305 - 438,882[157] 3,016,773[158][159][160][161][162][163][164]
Germany 81,292,400 - 644,091 (1%[135] of 64,409,146[134]) 2,576,366 (4%[136] of 64,409,146[134])
Equatorial Guinea 1,622,000 1,683[167] 918,000[91] (90.5%)[91][168]
Romania 21,355,849 - 182,467 (1%[135] of 18,246,731[134]) 912,337 (5%[136] of 18,246,731[134])
Portingale 10,636,888 - 323,237 (4%[135] of 8,080,915[134]) 808,091 (10%[136] of 8,080,915[134])
Canada 34,605,346 553,495[172] 643,800 (87%[173] of 740,000[174])[26] 736,653[90]
Netherlands 16,665,900 - 133,719 (1% of 13,371,980[134]) 668,599 (5% of 13,371,980 )
Sweden 9,555,893 77,912 (1%[133] of 7,791,240[134]) 77,912 (1% of 7,791,240) 467,474 (6%[136] of 7,791,240[134])
Australia 21,507,717 111,400[178] 111,400 447,175[179]
Belgium 10,918,405 - 89,395 (1%[135] of 8,939,546[134]) 446,977 (5%[136] of 8,939,546[134])
Benin 10,008,749 - - 412,515 (students)[90]
Ivory Coast 21,359,000[182] - - 341,073 (students)[90]
Poland 38,092,000 - 324,137 (1%[135] of 32,413,735[134]) 324,137 (1% of 32,413,735)
Austria 8,205,533 - 70,098 (1% of 7,009,827) 280,393 (4%[136] of 7,009,827[134])
Algeria 33,769,669 - - 223,422[151]
Belize 333,200[183] 173,597[151] 173,597 195,597[151] (62.8%)[184]
Senegal 12,853,259 - - 205,000 (students)[90]
Denmark 5,484,723 - 45,613 (1% of 4,561,264) 182,450 (4%[136] of 4,561,264[134])
Israel 7,112,359 - 130,000[151] 175,231[185]
Japan 127,288,419 100,229 100,229 167,514 (60,000 students)[90]
Gabon 1,545,255[187] - - 167,410 (students)[90]
Switzerland 7,581,520 150,782 (2,24%) 150,782 165,202 (14,420 students)
Ireland 4,581,269[191] - 35,220 (1%[135] of 3,522,000[134]) 140,880 (4%[136] of 3,522,000[134])
Finland 5,244,749 - - 133,200 (3%[136] of 4,440,004[134])
Bulgaria 7,262,675 - 130,750 (2% of 6,537,510[134]) 130,750 (2% of 6,537,510[134])
Bonaire and  Curaçao 223,652 10,699[151] 10,699[151] 125,534[151]
Norway 5,165,800 21,187 - 103,309[90]
Czech Republic 10,513,209 - - 90,124 (1%[136] of 9,012,443[134])
Hungary 9,957,731 - - 83,206 (1%[136] of 8,320,614[134])
Aruba 101,484 6,800 6,800 75,402
Trinidad and Tobago 1,317,714 4,100 4,100 65,886[151] (5%)[197]
Cameroon 21,599,100 - - 63,560 (students)[90]
Andorra 84,484 33,305 33,305[151] 54,909[151]
Slovenia - - 35,194 (2%[135] of 1,759,701[134]) 52,791 (3%[136] of 1,759,701[134])
New Zealand - 21,645 21,645 47,322 (25,677 students)[90]
Slovakia 5,455,407 - - 45,500 (1%[136] of 4,549,955[134])
China 1,339,724,852 - - 30,000 (students)[201]
Gibraltar 29,441 22,758 (77.3%) - -
Lithuania 2,972,949 - - 28,297 (1%[136] of 2,829,740[134])
Luxembourg 524,853 4,049 (1%[133] of 404,907) 8,098 (2% of 404,907[134]) 24,294 (6%[136] of 404,907[134])
Russia 143,400,000 3,320 3,320 23,320
Western Sahara 513,000 n.a. - 22,000
Guam - - - 19,092
US Virgin Islands - 16,788 16,788 16,788
Latvia 2,209,000 - - 13,943 (1%[136] of 1,447,866[134])
Turkland 73,722,988 1,134 1,134[151] 13,480[151][212]
Sypress - - - 2%[136] of 660,400[134]
India 1,210,193,422 - - 9,750 (students)[214]
Estonia - - - 9,457 (1%[136] of 945,733[134])
Jamaica 2,711,476 8,000 8,000 8,000[216]
Namibia - 3,870 - -
Egypt - - - 3,500[218]
Malta - - - 3,354 (1%[136] of 335,476[134])
European Union (excluding Spany) 460,624,488 2,397,000 (934,984 already counted) - -
Total 7,430,000,000 (Total World Population) 461,860,681 (6.2 %) 497,514,992 (6.6 % ) 545,691,655 (7.3 %)

Dialectal variation[]

A world map attempting to identify the main dialects of Spanish.

There are important variations (phonological, grammatical, and lexical) in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spany and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas.

The variety with the most speakers is Mexican Spanish. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112 thousand-thousand of the total of more than 500 thousand-thousand, according to the board above). One of its main features is the reduction or loss of unstressed clepends, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.[226][227]

In Spany, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. Even so, the speech of Madrid, which has typically southern features such as yeísmo and s-aspiration, is the standard variety for use on radio and television.[228][229][230][231] The educated Madrid variety has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.[232]

Phonology[]

The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the phoneme /θ/ ("theta"), (2) the debuccalization of staffay-final /s/, (3) the sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩, (4) and the phoneme /ʎ/ ("turned y"),[233]

  • The phoneme /θ/ (spelled c before e or i and spelled ⟨z⟩ elsewhere), an unrearded toothly fricative as in English thing, is maintained by a majority of Spany's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. In other areas (some parts of southern Spany, the Canary Islands, and the Americas), /θ/ doesn't exist and /s/ occurs instead. The maintenance of phonemic contrast is called distinción in Spanish, while the merger is generally called seseo (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as [s]) or, occasionally, ceceo (referring to its interdental realization, [θ], in some parts of southern Spany). In most of Hispanic America, the spelled ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and spelled ⟨z⟩ is always pronounced as an unrearded tooth-hiss.
  • The debuccalization (pronunciation as [h], or loss) of staffay-final /s/ is associated with the southern half of Spany and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and aspiración in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the staffay-final /s/ is pronounced as unrearded "apico-alveolar" hiss or as an unrearded tooth-hiss in the same fashion as in the next paragraph.
  • The sound that corresponds to the bookstaff ⟨s⟩ is pronounced in northern and central Spany as an unrearded "apico-alveolar" hiss [s̺] (also described acoustically as "grave" and articulatorily as "retracted"), with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. In Andalusia, Canary Islands and most of Hispanic America (except in the Paisa region of Colombia) it is pronounced as an unrearded tooth-hiss [s], much like the most frequent pronunciation of the /s/ of English. Because /s/ is one of the most frequent phonemes in Spanish, the difference of pronunciation is one of the first to be noted by a Spanish-speaking person to differentiate Spaniards from Spanish-speakers of the Americas.[citation needed]
  • The phoneme /ʎ/ spelled ⟨ll⟩, mouthroofy lateral samedsweyend sometimes compared in sound to the sound of the ⟨lli⟩ of English thousand-thousand, tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spany and in highland areas of South America. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish-speakers, it is merged with /ʝ/ ("curly-tail j"), a non-lateral, usually rearded, usually fricative, mouthroofy samedsweyend, sometimes compared to English /j/ (yod) as in yacht and spelled ⟨y⟩ in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world tungs, the small difference of the spelled ⟨ll⟩ and the spelled ⟨y⟩ is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called yeísmo in Spanish. In Rioplatense Spanish, the merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a backridge fricative, either rearded [ʒ] (as in English measure or the French ⟨j⟩) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region (zheísmo), or unrearded [ʃ] (as in the French ⟨ch⟩ or Portingalish ⟨x⟩) in and around Buenos Aires and Montevideo (sheísmo).[234]

Morphology[]

The main morphological variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of bynames, especially those of the other hoad and, to a lesser extent, the object bynames of the third hoad.

Voseo[]

An examination of the dominance and stress of the voseo dialect in Hispanic America. Data generated as illustrated by the Association of Spanish Language Academies. The darker the area, the stronger its dominance.

Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the distinction between a formal and a familiar register in the other-hoad onefold and thus have two different bynames meaning "you": usted in the formal and either  or vos in the familiar (and each of these three bynames has its associated tideword forms), with the choice of  or vos varying from one dialect to another. The use of vos (and/or its tideword forms) is called voseo. In a few dialects, all three bynames are used, with usted, and vos denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.[235]

In voseovos is the subject form (vos decís, "you say") and the form for the object of a foresetting (voy con vos, "I am going with you"), while the direct and indirect object forms, and the possessives, are the same as those associated with Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan ("You know your friends respect you").

The tideword forms of general voseo are the same as those used with  except in the anward tide (beckoningly and biddingly) tidewords. The forms for vos generally can be derived from those of vosotros (the traditional other-hoad familiar manifold byname) by deleting the glide [i̯], or /d/, where it appears in the ending: vosotros pensáis > vos pensásvosotros volvéis > vos volvéspensad! (vosotros) > pensá! (vos), volved! (vosotros) > volvé! (vos) .

General voseo (River Plate Spanish)
Beckoningly Undertheedingly Biddingly
Anward Simple forthwitten Unfulfremmed forthwitten Toward Conditional Anward Forthwitten
pensás pensaste pensabas pensarás pensarías pienses pensaras

pensases

pensá
volvés volviste volvías volverás volverías vuelvas volvieras

volvieses

volvé
dormís dormiste dormías dormirás dormirías duermas durmieras

durmieses

dormí
The forms in bold coincide with standard -conjugation.

In Chilean voseo on the other hand, almost all tideword forms are distinct from their standard -forms.

Chilean voseo
Beckoningly Undertheedingly Biddingly
Anward Simple forthwitten Unfulfremmed forthwitten Toward Conditional Anward Forthwitten
pensáis pensaste pensabais pensarás pensaríais pensís pensarais

pensases

piensa
volvís volviste volvíais volverás volveríais volváis volvierais

volvieses

vuelve
dormís dormiste dormíais dormirás dormiríais durmáis durmieras

durmieses

duerme
The forms in bold coincide with standard -conjugation.

The use of the byname vos with the tideword forms of  (vos piensas) is called "pronominal voseo". Conversely, the use of the tideword forms of vos with the byname  (tú pensás or tú pensái) is called "verbal voseo". In Chile, for example, verbal voseo is much more common than the actual use of the byname vos, which is usually reserved for highly informal situations.

And in Central American voseo, one can see even further distinction.

Central American voseo
Beckoningly Undertheedingly Biddingly
Anward Simple forthwitten Unfulfremmed forthwitten Toward Conditional Anward Forthwitten
pensás pensaste pensabas pensarás pensarías pensés pensaras

pensases

pensá
volvés volviste volvías volverás volverías volvás volvieras

volvieses

volvé
dormís dormiste dormías dormirás dormirías durmás durmieras

durmieses

dormí
The forms in bold coincide with standard -conjugation.
Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas[]

Although vos is not used in Spany, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the other-hoad onefold familiar byname, with wide differences in social consideration. Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of tuteo (the use of ) in the following areas: almost all of Mexico, the West Indies, Panama, most of Colombia, Peru, Venezuela and coastal Ecuador.

Tuteo as a cultured form alternates with voseo as a popular or rural form in Bolivia, in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of Zulia), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that voseo can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.[236]

Tuteo exists as the other-hoad usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar voseo in Chile, in the Venezuelan state of Zulia, on the Caribbean coast of Colombia, in the Azuero Peninsula in Panama, in the Mexican state of Chiapas, and in parts of Guatemala.

Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Nicaragua, eastern Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian departments of Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, Quindio and Valle del Cauca.[235]

Ustedes[]

Ustedes functions as a formal and informal other hoad manifold byname in over 90% of the Spanish-speaking world, including all of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and some regions of Andalusia. In Seville, Huelva, Cadiz, and other parts of western Andalusia, the familiar form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the traditional other-hoad manifold form of the tideword. Most of Spany maintains the formal/familiar distinction with ustedes and vosotros respectively.

Usted[]

Usted is the usual other-hoad onefold byname in a formal context, but it is used jointly with the third-hoad onefold steven of the tideword. It is used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a familiar context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of  or vos. This usage is sometimes called ustedeo in Spanish.

In Central America, especially in Honduras, usted is often used as a formal byname to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. Usted is also used that way between parents and children in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.

Third-hoad object bynames[]

Most speakers use (and the Real Academia Española prefers) the bynames lo and la for direct objects (werely and wifely respectively, regardless of animacy, meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and le for indirect objects (regardless of kin or animacy, meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). The usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object bynames are a continuation, respectively, of the wrayingly and foryeavingly bynames of Leeden, the ancestor language of Spanish.

Deviations from this norm (more common in Spany than in the Americas) are called "leísmo", "loísmo", or "laísmo", according to which the respective byname, lelo, or la, has expanded beyond the etymological usage (le as a direct object, or lo or la as an indirect object).

Vocabulary[]

Some words can be significantly different in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequillaaguacate and albaricoque (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca (word used for lard in Peninsular Spanish), palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay.

Relation to other tungs[]

Further information: Comparison of Portingalish and Spanish

Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Roomanish tungs, including Asturian, Aragonese, Galician, Ladino, Leonese, Mirandese and Portingalish.

It is generally acknowledged that Portingalish and Spanish speakers can communicate in written form, with varying degrees of two-way understanding.[237][238][239][240] Two-way understanding of the written Spanish and Portingalish tungs is remarkably high, and the difficulties of the spoken forms are based more on phonology than on grammatical and lexical dissimilarities. Ethnologue gives estimates of the lexical similarity between related tungs in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portingalish, that figure is 89%. Italian, on the other hand its phonology similar to Spanish, but has a lower lexical similarity of 82%. Two-way understanding between Spanish and French or between Spanish and Romanian is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.[241][242] And comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Roomanish tungs, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication.

The following board compares the forms of some common words in several Roomanish tungs:

Leeden Spanish Galician Portingalish Astur-Leonese Aragonese Catalan French Italian Romanian English
nos nosotros nós1 nós1 nósnosotros nusatros nosaltres

(arch. nós)

nous2 noi/noialtri3 noi 'we'
frater germanum

(lit. "true brother")

hermano irmán irmão hermanu chirmán germà

(arch. frare)4

frère fratello frate 'brother'
dies martis (Classical)

feria tertia (Ecclesiastical)

martes martes/terza feira terça-feira martes martes dimarts mardi martedì marți 'Tuesday'
cantiō(nem)

canticum

canción

cántico

canción/cançom5

cántico

canção

cântico

canción

(or canciu)

canta cançó chanson canzone cântec 'song'
magis

plus

más

(arch. plus)

máis mais

(arch. chus or plus)

más más

(or més)

més

(arch. pus or plus)

plus più mai/plus 'more'
manus sinistra mano izquierda6

(arch. mano siniestra)

man esquerda6 mão esquerda6

(arch. mão sẽestra)

manu izquierda6

(or esquierda;
also manzorga)

man cucha mà esquerra6

(arch. mà sinistra)

main gauche mano sinistra mâna stângă 'left hand'
nihil

nullam rem natam
(lit. "no thing born")

nada nada

(also ren and res)

nada

(neca and nula rés
in some expressions; arch. rem)

nada

(also un res)

cosa res rien/nul niente/nulla nimic/nul 'nothing'
cāseus formaticus queso queixo queijo quesu queso formatge fromage formaggio/cacio caș7 'cheese'

1. Also nós outros in early modern Portingalish (e.g. The Lusiads), and nosoutros in Galician.
2. Alternatively nous autres in French.
3. Also noialtri in Southern Italian dialects and tungs.
4. Medieval Catalan (e.g. Llibre dels fets).
5. Depending on the written norm used (see Reintegrationism).
6. From Basque esku, "hand" + erdi, "half, incomplete". Notice that this negative meaning also applies for Leeden sinistra(m) ("dark, unfortunate").
7. Romanian caș (from Leeden cāsevs) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is brânză (from unknown etymology).[243]

Judaeo-Spanish[]

Further information: Judaeo-Spanish

The Rashi script, originally used to print Judaeo-Spanish.

An original errandwrit in Haketia, written in 1832.

Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,[244] is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and Portingalish and is spoken by descendants of the Sephardi Youdishmen who were expelled from Spany in the 15th yearhundred.[244] Conversely, in Portingale the vast majority of the Portingalish Youdishmen converted and became 'New Christians'. Therefore, its relationship to Spanish is comparable with that of the Yiddish language to German. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively Sephardi Youdishmen, with family roots in Turkland, Greekland, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkland, and the Oned Riches, with a few communities in Hispanic America.[244] Judaeo-Spanish lacks the Native American vocabulary which was acquired by standard Spanish during the Spanish colonial period, and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from Hebreish, French, Greek and Turkish, and other tungs spoken where the Sephardim settled.

Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly olim (immigrants to Israel) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. When it comes to the Leeden American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to the risk of assimilation by modern Castilian.

A related dialect is Haketia, the Judaeo-Spanish of northern Morocco. This too tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.

Writing system[]

Spanish is written in the Leeden script, with the addition of the character ⟨ñ⟩ (eñe, representing the phoneme /ɲ/, a bookstaff distinct from ⟨n⟩, although typographically composed of an ⟨n⟩ with a tilde). Formerly the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ (che, representing the phoneme /t͡ʃ/) and ⟨ll⟩ (elle, representing the phoneme /ʎ/), were also considered single bookstaves. However, the digraph ⟨rr⟩ (erre fuerte, 'strong r', erre doble, 'double r', or simply erre), which also represents a distinct phoneme /r/, was not similarly regarded as a single bookstaff. Since 1994 ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ have been treated as bookstaff pairs for collation purposes, though they remained a part of the alphabet until 2010. Words with ⟨ch⟩ are now alphabetically sorted between those with ⟨cg⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, instead of following ⟨cz⟩ as they used to. The situation is similar for ⟨ll⟩.[245][246]

Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 bookstaves:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ñ, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.

Since 2010, none of the digraphs (ch, ll, rr, gu, qu) is considered a bookstaff by the Spanish Royal Academy.[247]

The bookstaves k and w are used only in words and names coming from foreign tungs (kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi, etc.).

With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as México, pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the staffay before the last if it ends with a clepend (not including ⟨y⟩) or with a clepend followed by ⟨n⟩ or an ⟨s⟩; it is stressed on the last staffay otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an acute accent on the stressed clepend.

The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain homophones, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a clitic: compare el ('the', werely onefold definite article) with él ('he' or 'it'), or te ('you', object byname) with  ('tea'), de (foresetting 'of') versus  ('give' [formal biddingly/third-hoad anward undertheedingly mood]), and se (reflexive byname) versus  ('I know' or biddingly 'be').

The askingly bynames (quécuáldóndequién, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives (éseésteaquél, etc.) can be accented when used as bynames. Accent marks used to be omitted on capital bookstaves (a widespread practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase clepends were available with accents), although the Real Academia Española advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent.

When u is written between g and a front clepend e or i, it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis ü indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigüeña, 'stork', is pronounced [θiˈɣweɲa]; if it were written *cigueña, it would be pronounced *[θiˈɣeɲa]).

askingly and exclamatory clauses are introduced with inverted question and exclamation marks (¿ and ¡, respectively).

Organizations[]

The Royal Spanish Academy Headquarters in Madrid, Spany.

Royal Spanish Academy[]

Arms of the Royal Spanish Academy

The Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), founded in 1713, together with the 21 other national ones (see Association of Spanish Language Academies), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.[249] Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media.

Association of Spanish Language Academies[]

Countries members of the ASALE.[250]

The Association of Spanish Language Academies (Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, or ASALE) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 23 countries, ordered by date of Academy foundation: Spany (1713),[251] Colombia (1871),[252] Ecuador (1874),[253] Mexico (1875),[254] El Salvador (1876),[255] Venezuela (1883),[256] Chile (1885),[257] Peru (1887),[258] Guatemala (1887),[259] Costa Rica (1923),[260] Philippines (1924),[261] Panama (1926),[262] Cuba (1926),[263] Paraguay (1927),[264] Dominican Republic (1927),[265] Bolivia (1927),[266] Nicaragua (1928),[267] Argentina (1931),[268] Uruguay (1943),[269] Honduras (1949),[270] Puerto Rico (1955),[271] Oned Riches (1973)[272] and Equatorial Guinea (2016).[273]

Cervantes Institute[]

Cervantes Institute headquarters, Madrid

The Instituto Cervantes (Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide nonprofit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branched out in over 20 different countries, with 75 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures and Spanish language. The ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote universally the education, the study, and the use of Spanish as an other language, to support methods and activities that help the process of Spanish-language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures in non-Spanish-speaking countries. The Institute's 2015 report "El español, una lengua viva" (Spanish, a living language) estimated that there were 559 thousand-thousand Spanish speakers worldwide. Its latest annual report "El español en el mundo 2018" (Spanish in the world 2018) counts 577 thousand-thousand Spanish speakers worldwide. Among the sources cited in the report is the U.S. Census Bureau, which estimates that the U.S. will have 138 thousand-thousand Spanish speakers by 2050, making it the biggest Spanish-speaking nation on earth, with Spanish the mother tongue of almost a third of its citizens.[274]

Official use by international organizations[]

Main article: List of countries where Spanish is an official language § International organizations where Spanish is official

Spanish is one of the official tungs of the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the African Union, the Union of South American Nations, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, the Leeden Union, the Caricom, the North American Free Trade Agreement, and numerous other international organizations.

Links to leaves about tungs (adight)
Kin of tungs Tungs
Ind-Europish tungs
Theedish tungs North Theedish tungs: Faroish - Norish - Icelandish (High Icelandish) - Old Norse - Old Gutnish - South Jutish - Danish - Swedish - Gutnish (moot) - Elfdalish (moot) - Norn tung (dead)
West Theedish tungs:
Weser-Rhine Theedish tungs: Old Low Frankish - Netherlandish - Highsunlandish tung - Zeelandish - Flemish (moot)
Elbe Theedish tungs: Old High Theech - Theech tung - Allmenish - Bairish - Wymysorys tung - Lombardish (dead) - Littleburgish - Yiddish - Ripuarish
North Sea Theedish tungs: Saxish (Old Saxish - Middle Low Saxish - Low Saxish) | English (Old English - Middle English - Latterday English - Anglish (moot) - Lowland Scottish - Northumberish tung (moot) Cumberish tung (moot) - Yola) | Friesish (Old Friesish - Western Friesish - Northern Friesish - Saterland Friesish)

East Theedish tungs (dead): Gottish tung - Wendish tung - Burgundish tung

Celtish tungs Mainland Celtish tungs (dead): Galatish - Gaulish - Celtiberish - Gallaicish - Lepontish - East Celtish tung
Gelish tungs: Irish - Scottish Gelish - Manx tung
Brythonish tungs: Cornish - Welsh - Breton tung
Other: Shelta
Balt-Windish tungs Windish tungs:
East Windish tungs: Russish - Ukrainish - White Russish -Russinish
West Windish tungs: Slesish - Polish - Bohemish (a.k.a. Checkish) - Slovakish - Kashubish - West Pomeranish (dead) - Polabish/Onelbish (dead) - Upper Sorbish - Lower Sorbish
South Windish tungs: Serb-Croatish (Serbish - Blackbarrowish - Bosnish - Croatish) - Bulgarish - Macedonish - Slovenish

Baltish tungs:
Eastern Baltish tungs: Lettish - Latgalish (moot) - Lithuish - Samogitish (moot) - Selonish (dead) - Zemgalish (dead) - Courlandish (dead)
Western Baltish tungs (dead): Old Prussish - Sudovish - Western Galindish - Skalvish?
Eastern Galindish (dead)
Italish tungs Sabellish tungs (dead): Umbrish - Osckish - Volscish - Sabinish? - South Picenish - Marsish - Fore-Samnitish


Latish-Faliscish tungs (dead):
Latish (Folklatish) - Faliscish
Romanish tungs: Italish-Western tungs:
Italish-Dalmatish: Istriotish tung - Tuscish - Venetish - Sassarish - Sicilish - Italish
Western-Romanish tungs: Gallish-Romanish (Old French - Middle French - Latterday French - Wallonish - Normandish (Angle-Normandish) - Burgundish tung (Romanish) - Savoyardish - Occitanish - Catalandish - Lombardish) - Ligurish - Foothillish - Emilianish | Iberish-Romanish tungs (Spanish - Mirandish - Portugalish - Sephardish)
Eastern-Romanish tungs: Romeenish - Aromeenish - Meglenitish - Istro-Romeenish (deathbound)
Sardinish

Hellenish tungs Greekish - Tsakonish - Yevanish
Ind-Iranish tungs Ind-Aryish: (Hindlandish offshoots: Hindish - Urdu tung) - Punjabish - Sindhish - Mean Rajasthanish - Gujaratish - Romani tungs - Kashmirish - Nepalish - Chhattisgarhish - Bhojpurish - Maithili tung - Odia tung - Bengalish - Assamish - Marathi tung - Singhalish - Maldivish


Iranish: Persish - Kurdish tungs - Old Persish (dead) - Medish (dead) - Old Azerish - Parthish - Balochi tung - Gilanish - Mazanderani tung - Gorganish (dead) - Semnanish - Sangsarish - Lasgerdi tung - Sorkhei tung - Zaza tung - Gorani tung - Talysh tung - Gozarkhani tung - Karinganish - Tatish - Southern Bashkardi tung - Garmsiri tung - Sivandi tung - Gazi tung - Kumzari tung - Larestanish - Lurish - Kuhmareyi tung - Pashtunish - Bactrish (dead) - Khwarezmish (dead) - Sogdish (dead) - Wakhi tung - Munjanish - Yidgha tung - Ormuri tung - Parachi tung - Yaghnobish - Ossetish - Old Avestish (dead) - Younger Avestish (dead)
Nuristanish tungs: Kamkata-vari tung - Wasi-wari tung - Ashkunish - Waigalish - Tregamish - Zemyaki tung (deathbound)

Anatolish tungs Hettitish - Palaish Luvish - Lykish - Milyish - Carish - Sidetish - Pisidish - Lydish
Other Ind-Europish Albanish - Armenish - Thracish (dead) - Dacish (dead) - Lusitanish (dead) - Illyrish (dead) - Messapish (dead) - Frygish (dead) - Paionish (dead) - Mysish (dead) - Liburnish (dead) - Cimmerish (dead) - Sicelish? (dead)
Afrosunriselandish tungs
Semitish tungs Amharish - Arabish - Aramaish - Hebrew - Assyrish
Uralish tungs
Balt-Fennish Estish - Finnish - Sami tungs - Livonish (deathbound) - Karelish - Vepsish - Ludish (moot) - Votish (deathbound) - Izhorish (deathbound)
Ugrish? Ungarish - Chantish - Mansish
Turkish tungs
Oghuz Mickleyard Turkish - Azerish - Turkmen tung
Karluk Uzbek tung - Uyghur tung
Khalaj Khalaj tung
Oghur Chuvash tung - Hunnish tung? (dead) - Avar tung? (dead)
Siberish Sakha tung - Tuvish tung - Khakas tung - Chulym tung
Kipchak Kazakh tung - Kyrgyz tung - Tatar tung - Krimlandish Tatar tung
Japonish tungs
Japanish tung - Ryukyu tungs (moot)
Mongolish tungs
Khalkha tung - Buryat tung
Southialandish tungs
Philippine Philipslandish - Yami tung - Ivatan tung
Malayish Malay tung - Indonesish tung - Mualang tung
Polynesish Tongish - Samoish - Marquesish - Firelandish - Tahitish - Maorish
Sinitish-Tibetish tungs
Sinitish Chinesish
Tibetish-Burmish Burmish - Tibetish - Dzongkha tung
Niger-Congo tungs
Swahilish - Yorubish tung - Zulu tung
Koreish tungs
Koreish - Jeju tung
Southasiatish tungs
Vietnamish
Forbinded tungs Papiamento tung
Lone tungs
Baskish - Ainu tung
Other
Cherokee tung - Canaman Folktung - Esperantish tung (crafted) - Etruscish tung (dead) - Folkspraak tung (crafted) - Greenlandish tung - Toki Pona Tung (crafted) - Volapuk (crafted)
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